Well-being and Educational Outcomes across Student with Different University Admission Strategies

The results of a study of psychological well-being and educational outcomes of first-year students depending on their university admission strategy – based on the results of the Unified State Examinations, winners and prize-winners of school Olympic competitions, within the framework of targeted recruitment, after graduating from secondary vocational education institutions, or combined data from the Unified State Examinations and additional entrance examinations organized by universities were presented. The focus of the research is on the indicators of well-being, subjective happiness, and anxiety of first-year students and the results of their first examination session. The study involved 4,920 first-year students from 19 universities of the Russian Federation (57.5% girls; the average age was 18.6 years, standard deviation 1.6). It is shown that first-year students with different university admission strategies differ in their level of well-being, subjective happiness and anxiety, demonstrating unique combinations of the severity of these traits. At the same time, personal anxiety varies to the greatest extent among first-year students depending on the strategy of admission to the university. The choice of admission strategy turns out to be interconnected with the educational outcomes of the student in the first academic year, and the unique combination of the expression of signs of psychological well-being in groups of students with different admission strategies can strengthen or weaken this relationship. The obtained data on the group uniqueness of the manifestation of signs of psychological state depending on the admission strategy can become a scientific basis for organizing psychological support of higher education.

Introduction

Entering university is a pivotal point in every young man’s life, which on the one hand determines their future professional self-realization, and on the other requires the maximum actualization and stable functioning of individual psychological resources [Baeva; Basyuk]. In the Russian Federation there are numerous ways to enter university, each of them implies its own extent of “involvement”, the period of active “utilization” and the number of spikes of maximum actualization of individual resources to achieve admission.

According to the Procedure for admission to higher education programs - bachelor's degree programs, specialist programs, master's degree programs, admission to universities is carried out on a competitive basis based on the results of the Unified State Examinations [Prikaz Ministerstva nauki, 2021]. Upon completion of school education, exams are taken in compulsory general education disciplines and subjects, which are determined by the university as entrance examinations. As a rule, the most active preparation for passing the state final certification in educational programs of secondary general education in the form of the Unified State Examination (hereinafter - USE) begins one year before the expected date of the exam and continues throughout the 11th grade, often with the help of additional classes with school and / or specially invited teachers, depending on the capabilities of the high school student's family.

Besides that, universities have a right to hold additional entry tests on specialties or training programs, which require applicants to have a certain degree of artistic skills, fitness, psychological qualities, primarily in such areas as art, architecture, healthcare, physical education, pedagogy, media communication, etc. [Prikaz Ministerstva obrazovaniya, 2014]. Only some highly-rated universities can hold additional entry tests in comprehensive disciplines, regardless of the specialty or the training program specificity. The programs of additional entry tests are posted by such universities in the public domain, and preparation for them can be carried out within the framework of preparatory courses of varying duration and intensity: from two-month intensive training to courses that can span several years, designed to prepare pupils starting in their 9th year. At the same time, preparation for additional entrance examinations at the university does not eliminate the need for consistent, hard work throughout the senior grades of school to achieve maximum success in the Unified State Exam, the results of which must be competitive when entering highly-ranked universities.

At the same time, applicants have an opportunity to be admitted into university without having to take entry tests, particularly by the results of pupils Olympiads (article 71 [Federal'nyj zakon ot]). Thus, winners and prize winners of school Olympiads have the right to guaranteed admission to universities without entrance examinations or to be equal to persons who have scored the maximum number of points on the Unified State Examination in a specialized general education subject or who have successfully passed additional entrance examinations of a creative or professional nature. The guarantee of admission to a university makes the Olympiads attractive for schoolchildren of different age categories, but targeted work on participation in Olympiad competitions that give the right to admission without entrance examinations begins in grades 7–8, when it is necessary to begin winning from stage to stage in the Olympiads of the chosen profile and level [Prikaz Ministerstva nauki].

Within the framework of a separate competition, universities conduct admission to targeted training for places in a specially allocated target quota, when the customer organization interested in the future employee can support the student with additional social payments, for example, a scholarship, compensation for housing rent, etc., subject to the student's subsequent work for the customer for a period of at least three and no more than five years [Postanovlenie Pravitel'stva Rossijskoj]. If it is possible to conclude an agreement on targeted training, the applicant is effectively guaranteed admission to the university without the need for high scores on the Unified State Exam, and the issue of further employment is also resolved.

In some universities a separate competition is held for the applicants who have completed secondary vocational training only on the basis of internal exams in general education and (or) creative disciplines without the need to pass the Unified State Exam. Moreover, is some universities college graduates’ training can be accelerated, giving them a chance to get higher education faster than their peers who enter university upon graduating from comprehensive schools.

Each of these paths eventually leads to university admission on a state-funded place, but the choice of the strategy depends on the capabilities of the applicant’s family and on his individual psychological resources, which allow or inhibit the realization of the chosen strategy. Target quota admission is characterized by the minimal amount of time and intensity of psychological resources without any spikes of extreme actualization. Striking a deal with an organization practically guarantees the applicant admission, extra social support and further employment. By contrast, entering university by the results of the USE and extra entry tests requires applicants to demonstrate prolonged intellectual activity during the preparation phase, serious emotional stress during the examination at school and competitive tests at university, and also frequent actualization of regulatory capabilities and individual traits necessary for achieving the result.

According to the resource approach to the functioning of the psyche, prolonged psychological stress, typical for some enrollment strategies, at a certain stage can lead to substantial inhibition or loss of individual resources in the sphere of intellectual, personal or emotional development [1; 3; 20, etc.]. Inhibition of a certain resource, exacerbated by inability or impossibility to “redistribute”, causes the state of academic stress, which applicants fall into due to various deadlines, constant fear of losing a competitive test, failing to enroll into university, etc. The young man perceives this condition as psychological distress, which negatively affects the realization of relevant life goals in particular, and psychological well-being in general in the long run [1; 12].

The phenomenon of psychological distress, also known as psychological well-being in the terminology of positive psychology, is a multi-tiered structure, which is deeply intertwined with such concepts as happiness, subjective well-being, psychological well-being, anxiety, quality of life (for more details see [Leont'ev; Leont'ev, a]). Cognation of these terms, from synonymity to generic relations, depends on the approach to the analysis of psychological well-being and theories, formulated within the framework of hedonistic and eudaemonist philosophy [Deci, 2008]. At the same time, when operation alizing concepts that reflect the general state of mental balance, psychological comfort and happiness, predominantly noticeable and high-intensity relationships are observed, for example, between psychological well-being and happiness, happiness and personal well-being, etc. (0.47 < r < 0.77; p < 0.001) [Osin, 2020]. And usage of a particular term in empirical researches largely depends on the method of estimating the certain indicator of psychological well-being.

At the same time, among all the indicators or components of psychological well-being that are a more realistic reflection of its manifestation, the current psychological condition, feeling of happiness and frequency of anxieties can be highlighted.[7; 18; 19; 26 etc.]. The current psychological condition is defined through self-estimation of the individual psychological state, mood, serenity and positive energy [Topp, 2015]. It is proven that psychological condition ensures effective operation of the individual, and stressful events that last a long time or are intense can cause frequent mood swings, disruption of sleep patterns, decrease of everyday activity, apathy [22; 24; 27 etc.].

Traditionally, happiness is perceived as a complete synonym to psychological well-being and is defined as a state of maximum manifestation of positive emotions [Leont'ev, a]. So, we see that the subjective feeling of happiness not only correlates with psychological well-being, but also directly affects the declared level of well-being and positive socialization [Giannetti, 2021]. Along with that, the studies only give information on moderate connection between these two indicators, which allows to feel happiness under certain circumstances while having a moderate level of general psychological well-being [e.g., 7].

Anxiety, personal first of all, which reflects the individual inclination to feeling anxious about certain events and perception of these events as potentially dangerous, is not only connected to the status of psychological well-being, but also affects academic results. [Malykh; Spilberger, 2003; Awadalla, 2020; Tang, 2023]. At the same time there is a non-linear correlation between anxiety and academic achievements. The best academic results require the optimal level of anxiety [Högberg, 2024]. Thus, students with low anxiety have lower attention, lack incentives for studying and lack personal responsibility for their academic results [Spilberger, 2003; Al-Qaisy, 2011]. On the contrary, high levels of anxiety will manifest in constant stress, feeling of uneasiness, emotional instability, what ultimately increases the risk of alienation and causes inability to follow your daily routine [Awadalla, 2020; Tang, 2023].

First-year students are the most vulnerable category of young people, which on the one hand can retain the negative effects of university admission procedures, and on the other hand face the first year adaptation risks connected with their first examination session, self-studying, competing with their course mates [Baeva; Basyuk]. At the same time in appears to be necessary to focus our attention on various first year students’ groups with different enrollment strategies, which, as already shown before, are characterized by different intensity and duration of “application” of individual psychological resources.

The objective of the research is to analyze the peculiarities of psychological well-being of first-year students and their academic achievements depending on their enrollment strategy. The priority of the study is the comparative analysis of the three indicators of psychological well-being among first-year students: general psychological condition, happiness, anxiety, as well as the percentage distribution of excellent and unsatisfactory academic achievements among first-year students depending on their enrollment strategy.   

Materials and Methods

Four thousand nine hundred and twenty students from 19 universities from 7 federal regions of the Russian federation participated on the study. The average age of the participants is 18.6 years (standard deviation = 1.6), 57.5 % are women, 98% are on-campus students, 69.4% are state-funded. No significant statistical difference in all the analyzed indicators of psychological well-being was found in regard to the basis and form of education (p>0.05).

Among the participants: 73.3% were admitted based on their USE results; 2.4% based on school Olympiads; 7% enrolled on a target quota; 7.4% - upon completing secondary vocational education; 9.2% - USE and extra university tests combined. It is worth mentioning that 0.7% are the students who entered university otherwise, e.g. special quotas, etc. The results of these categories were not included in the statistical analysis.

The research was carried out during the second half of the year (February – May) on computers in IT classrooms following the unified protocol, instructional texts and assigning id codes to the participants in strict accordance with Federal Law No. 152-FZ “On Personal Data”. Under the supervision of the researcher the participants did test exercises in the same order reviewing the informed consent and obtaining the appropriate consent. Before completing the test tasks, each participant in the study provided information about their strategy for entering university and the results of the first examination session.

The indicators of psychological well-being

Current psychological condition

The level of psychological condition was estimated using the self-assessment questionnaire (“The WHO-5 Well-Being Index”, [Topp, 2015]). The questionnaire includes five statements, for example, “I am in a good mood and feel cheerful”, “I feel active and energetic”, “I wake up and feel fresh and relaxed”, etc.

The participants were asked to choose one variant which best fits the evaluation of their condition with the last two weeks: “All of the time”, “Most of the time”, “More than half of the time”, “Less than half of the time”, “Sometimes”, “Never”. The index of psychological condition is counted in points, calculated in accordance with the guidelines, in the range from 0 to 25, with the possibility of converting to percentage.

Happiness

The level of subjective happiness was estimated with the self-assessment questionnaire (“The Subjective Happiness Scale” [Lyubomirsky, 1999]). The questionnaire consists of four statements with a question, for example: “Some people are usually very happy. They enjoy life no matter what, making the most out of it. How much is it like you?” The participants were to estimate on the scale from 1 to 7 to what extent each statement could reflect their condition. The level of subjective happiness is calculated according to the guidelines and is represented by the sum number from 7 to 28 [Osin, 2020].

Anxiety

The level of personal anxiety was diagnosed with the scale of personal anxiety self-assessment questionnaire “State-Trait Anxiety Inventory” [Spilberger, 2003]. The scale includes 20 statements, for example: “I feel anxious when I think about my affairs and obligations”, “I take my failures too hard and can’t let go of them for a long time”, “There is a little thought in my head bothering me”, etc. The participants were to choose one the answers: “Almost never”, “Sometimes”, “Often”, “Almost all the time” according to their feelings. The level of personal anxiety is estimated with the sum from 20 to 80 points, which, according to the guidelines can be low (below 30 points), moderate (31-44) or high (45 or more).

Academic achievements

The study records the results of the first examination session. Before completing the tasks each participant was to answer which marks they got at their first session choosing one of the options: only 5; 5 and 4; 5,4,3; all 4; 4 and 3; all 3; failed examinations. 

Results

Psychological well-being of students with different enrollment strategies

The study analyzes the indicators of the current psychological condition, happiness and personal anxiety among first-year students depending on their enrollment strategy – based on the results of the USE, school Olympiads, target quotas, upon completing secondary vocational training or USE results plus extra university examinations combined. Table 1 demonstrates the average values and standard deviation of the indicators of psychological well-being of the first-year students with different enrollment strategies.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of psychological well-being indicators of students with different university admission strategy

Table 1 shows the current level of psychological condition as a percentage with minimum and maximum values of 0 and 100 respectively, the level of subjective happiness on a scale from 4 to 28 points and the level of personal anxiety on a scale from 20 to 80 pints.

According to the statistics, the highest level of psychological condition was recorded among target-quota first-year students. The average of 66.03 with the standard deviation of 20.6. At the same time, lowered figures were recorded among two groups: those who entered university after completing secondary vocational training and (the average of 59.73 with the standard deviation of 24.5) and based on the results of school Olympiads (the average of 59.46 with the standard deviation of 23.8). At the same time, the Olympiad winners are the happiest group (the average of 18.65 with the standard deviation of 3.3). Significantly less happy are the secondary vocational students (the average of 17.15 with the standard deviation of 4.0).

The highest levels of anxiety are recorded among the Olympiad winners (the average of 43.97 with the standard deviation of 8.8) and USE and extra university exams combined (the average of 43.86 with the standard deviation of 10.5). The minimum value of anxiety was recorded among the target-quota students (the average of 38.53 with the standard deviation of 10.0) Therefore, the average values for all the indicators demonstrate difference between the groups depending on their enrollment strategy.

The authenticity of the group differences in the indicators of psychological well-being and their evaluation was carried out with the single-factor analysis of variance method. The enrollment strategy was used as the categorical factor, and the dependent variable was introduced consecutively by the indicators of psychological well-being, which are the current psychological condition, subjective happiness and anxiety. The evaluation of the distribution of all the dependent variables for the groups in comparison using Levene’s criterion demonstrated the equality of dispersions (р > 0.05). Table 2 illustrates the combined results of analysis of variance on the indicators of psychological well-being of the first-year students depending on their enrollment strategy.

Table 2. Differences in indicators of psychological well-being depending on the university admission strategy

According to table 2, statistically noticeable differences between the first-year students with different enrollment strategies were gathered in all the indicators of psychological well-being, with the biggest amount of the enrollment strategy effect for personal anxiety being (ƞ2 = 0.05; р = 0.001). The groups vary to a lesser extent in such indicators as the subjective happiness and the current psychological condition (0.02 < ƞ2 < 0.03; р < 0.05).

The analysis of multiple comparisons with Bonferroni adjustment shows that of all the indicators of psychological well-being personal anxiety varies the most between the groups of students with different enrollment strategies. In particular, the difference was registered between all the groups but the Olympiad winners and the students who passed the USE plus extra university tests combined. These groups are characterized by almost identical slightly increased levels of personal anxiety (43.97 and 43.86 respectively). According to the data, the target quota group with the lowest level of personal anxiety statistically authentically differs from the rest of the groups, which indicate higher levels of personal anxiety (р = 0.001).

For the current psychological condition multiple comparisons have shown statistically authentic differences between the target quota group with the best result and the groups of the students, who enrolled based on the results of school Olympiads and after secondary vocational training (р = 0,029). For the subjective happiness the only difference can be seen between the Olympiad winners (happier) and the graduates of secondary vocational schools (less happy).

Therefore, the first-year students with different enrollment strategies vary in their level of psychological condition, subjective happiness and anxiety, showing unique combinations of these indicators’ manifestation.

Academic performance of students with different enrollment strategies

The study analyzes the results of the first examination session of the first-year students depending on their enrollment strategy – based on USE results, school Olympiads, target quota, secondary vocational training and USE + extra university test results combined. The following grade variants are represented in the study: all 5; 5 and 4; 5, 4, 3; all 4; 4 and 3; all 3; failed examinations. Table 3 illustrates the percentage distribution of the first session results among the students with different enrollment strategies.

Table 3. Percentage distribution of the first session results among the students with different enrollment strategies

As table 3 suggests, the largest number of first-year students who finished the first examination session with excellent grades are among those students who entered university based on the results of USE + extra university tests combined (24.2%), and the lowest is among the graduates of secondary vocational schools (17%).

The distribution of students who failed one or more exams and, accordingly, have failed examinations after the first session draws attention. Thus, the largest number of first-year students with failed examinations was found in the group of students who graduated from secondary vocational education institutions (9%), while the smallest number was in the group admitted based on combined USE results and additional entrance examinations of the university (2.3%). It has been shown that a relatively high percentage of students with unsatisfactory exam grades (3.4%) is also observed in the group of winners of school Olympiads, which exceeds the number of underperforming students admitted based on USE results (3.0%). A high percentage of students with academic debts was also recorded in the targeted quota group (5.4%).

Consequently, the choice of enrollment strategy for higher education institutions essentially determines the educational outcomes of the first examination session, primarily regarding the distribution of excellent and unsatisfactory grades. However, it should be noted that in all the analyzed groups of first-year students, regardless of their enrollment strategy, the most common category is those who passed the first session with “excellent” and “good” grades.

Discussion

According to descriptive statistics, first-year students in Russian universities, regardless of their enrollment strategy, report their psychological well-being and happiness as slightly above average, as well as experiencing anxiety, the manifestation of which corresponds to the upper limit of the moderate range.

Along with moderate average values of the analyzed indicators of psychological well-being, there is an extremely wide range of individual differences among first-year students in the manifestation of anxiety, current psychological condition, and self-assessment of happiness. According to the study, extremely low values (for psychological condition and happiness) or high values (for anxiety) are observed in 8.1%, 8.5%, and 5.6% of first-year students, respectively. These results correspond to the data from the population study of first-year students in Russian universities, which reports that 9% of respondents experience regular emotional difficulties, including increased irritability, a tendency toward anxiety for various reasons, and frequent mood swings [Basyuk]. First-year students with extreme values of psychological distress should be closely monitored by specialists in university psychological services.

The results of the variance analysis revealed significant differences in all the analyzed indicators of psychological state among students depending on their enrollment strategy: based on the results of the Unified State Exam (USE), winners and prizewinners of school Olympiads, within targeted admissions, after completing secondary vocational education, or based on combined USE results and additional entrance examinations organized by universities. Notably, the most pronounced differences between student groups were found in personal anxiety, which reflects an individual's propensity to frequently experience anxiety regarding a wide range of phenomena and events, particularly those related to the assessment of their knowledge, skills, and abilities [Spilberger, 2003; Awadalla, 2020; Tang, 2023]. It was shown that the least anxious students are those admitted to the university through targeted admissions under a separate competition for specially allocated quotas, which effectively guarantees enrollment, social support during their studies, and subsequent employment. The highest levels of personal anxiety in the sample were recorded in two groups of first-year students who were admitted based on the results of school Olympiads or on the basis of combined USE results and additional entrance examinations. The slightly elevated levels of anxiety among students with these enrollment strategies may be associated with the duration and intensity of psychological tension during the admission process and possibly the already established necessity to maintain a high educational status without the possibility of making mistakes during the first year.

In terms of current psychological condition and subjective happiness, less pronounced differences were observed between the various groups of first-year students. Specifically, the differences pertain to three groups of first-year students: those admitted through targeted admissions (with better condition), those who entered after completing secondary vocational education (with low condition and low self-assessment of happiness), and those who were admitted based on school Olympiad results (with low condition but the highest self-assessment of happiness). It is important to note that regardless of the enrollment strategy, the average values of psychological well-being indicators are in the range of moderate expression of signs. However, even variations within this range are significantly different between groups with specific admission strategies. These results, obtained through analysis of multiple comparisons with Bonferroni correction, highlighted the uniqueness of the psychological state of first-year students with different admission strategies and allowed for a correlation with the results of the first examination session.

It was shown, in particular, that the largest proportion of students who received excellent grades in all exams of the first university session (24.2%) and the smallest number of students with failed exams (2.3%) are found in the group of first-year students admitted to the university based on combined results from the Unified State Exam (USE) and additional entrance examinations. Students in this group are characterized by an average level of psychological well-being and happiness, while reporting a higher level of personal anxiety compared to their peers in other groups. This combination of characteristics allows for the prediction of their high academic performance, primarily based on data regarding the optimal level of anxiety, which can manifest as a responsible attitude towards studies, increased academic interest, and a constant need for high evaluation of their efforts[6; 13; 21 etc.].

Another group of students that closely follows in educational achievements during the first session are the winners and prize-holders of school Olympiads. 23.2% of first-year students with this admission strategy reported having passed all their exams with excellent marks. At the same time, it is notable that there is an unexpectedly high percentage of students in this group who have failed exams after the first session (3.4%). It is possible that the expression of psychological well-being indicators in this group of first-year students, particularly the lowest psychological condition in the sample and the highest level of personal anxiety, may negatively affect educational achievements in some cases. Specifically, research has shown that elevated levels of anxiety, particularly concerning the evaluation of performance outcomes, can lead to unstable emotional expressions, excessive worry, unwarranted perfectionism, and in some cases, to avoidance of evaluative situations, which consequently results in an inability to meet academic obligations. Therefore, the increased level of personal anxiety, depending on the characteristics of psychological well-being and the sense of happiness, may either limit or, conversely, facilitate educational achievements in the first year.

The highest incidence of unsatisfactory exam results during the first session is reported by students admitted to the university after completing vocational education institutions (9% of respondents in this group). Additionally, this group of first-year students has the lowest proportion of students receiving excellent grades, at 17%. The psychological well-being of students who come to study at the university after attending colleges can be characterized by the lowest psychological well-being, the lowest self-assessment of happiness, and an average level of anxiety. This combination of characteristics may indicate heightened risks of maladjustment for this category of first-year students and may be associated with the fundamentally new demands of the higher education system compared to the level of vocational education.

Analysis of the percentage distribution of unsatisfactory exam grades has revealed another group with a relatively high number of first-year students having failed exams after the first session—students enrolled through targeted admission programs (5.4%). Among these students, the percentage of those receiving excellent grades is relatively low at 19.4%, which is less than that of students who were admitted based on their Unified State Exam results. However, their psychological well-being is characterized by the best indicators such as the lowest levels of personal anxiety, optimal psychological well-being, and adequate subjective happiness. It is precisely this reduced level of personal anxiety, along with the possible specificity of targeted education that manifests in a diminished personal interest in studies, limited academic curiosity, and relative indifference to educational outcomes [6; 13; 21 etc.].

The largest group consists of students who were admitted to the university based on their Unified State Exam results, and they are characterized by average levels of psychological well-being. In this group, there is a moderate percentage of excellent students (21.4%) and a relatively low percentage of underperforming students (3.0%). This indicates that, despite certain issues, compared to other groups, students admitted based on USE results demonstrate more stable academic performance and higher indicators of psychological well-being.

The data on the psychological state and academic results of the first semester confirm the existing conclusions about the ambiguity of the relationship between well-being and academic success among students, including those with various admission strategies [Awadalla, 2020; Högberg, 2024; Kawase, 2008; Mofatteh, 2021; Zhang, 2022]. At the same time, the obtained data present a relevant research task – to determine the extent to which the relationship between the university admission strategy and academic results is mediated by the current psychological state of first-year students, other psychological traits necessary for university education, and, importantly, the knowledge already acquired during the preparation for university admission.

Conclusions

This is the first study to examine the specifics of psychological well-being and academic results during the first examination session among students of Russian universities, depending on their admission strategy – whether through Unified State Exam (USE) results, as winners and prize holders of school Olympiads, through targeted admission, after completing secondary vocational education, or through combined data from USE and additional entrance examinations organized by universities. Statistical analysis has allowed us to draw the following conclusions:

1. It has been shown that first-year students with various admission strategies differ in their levels of psychological well-being, subjective happiness, and anxiety, demonstrating unique combinations of these traits. In this context, personal anxiety emerges as the indicator of psychological well-being that varies the most among first-year students depending on their university admission strategy.
2. The choice of admission strategy is found to be interconnected with a student's academic results already in the first year of study. Furthermore, the unique combination of psychological well-being indicators within groups of students employing different admission strategies may either strengthen or weaken this correlation.
3. First-year students with various admission strategies require specific programs and technologies for psychological support in higher education, which are based on data regarding the group uniqueness of psychological well-being indicators as influenced by their admission strategies.

The results obtained in the research can serve as a scientific basis for organizing psychological support in higher education: by understanding the specifics of the manifestation of psychological well-being or distress indicators among groups of first-year students with different admission strategies, psychologists can more accurately and quickly identify the most effective technologies, programs, and methods of working with students.

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