Training children's cognitive functions using eye-tracking technology

The active development of eye-tracking, that is, recording of eye movements, gives opportunities for the creation of new approaches to the improving of cognitive functions and learning. Eye-tracking based methods can be useful not only for children with impaired motor and speech functions, but also for children with attention disorders, since gaze control is closely related to attention. Feedback from the gaze accuracy can improve the effectiveness of attention training techniques. In this paper, we describe studies of the effectiveness of the use of correctional techniques based on eye-tracking in infants (healthy group and groups with various risks for cognitive impairment) and in children with developmental disorders (autism, Rett syndrome, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). In almost all of the studies reviewed, positive effects of training were observed, i. e. both the productivity of the tasks performance and sustained attention were improved. A number of studies have revealed the transfer of the training effect to untrained functions, which is an important indicator of the effectiveness of correction techniques. All this indicates the perspective of development in this direction. However, much work is to be done, such as selecting and creating the most effective tasks, determining the optimal frequency and duration of training for different clinical groups.

1. Rose S.A., Feldman J.F., Jankowski J.J., Van Rossem R. A Cognitive Cascade in Infancy: Pathways from Prematurity to Later Mental Development. Intelligence, 2008. Vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 367—378. DOI:10.1016/j.intell.2007.07.003
2. Ballieux H., Wass S.V., Tomalski P., Kushnerenko E., Karmiloff-Smith A., Johnson M.H., Moore D.G. Applying gaze-contingent training within community settings to infants from diverse SES backgrounds. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2016. Vol. 43, pp. 8—17. DOI:10.1016/j.appdev.2015.12.005
3. Perra O., Alderdice F., Sweet D., McNulty A., Johnston M., Bilello D., Papageorgiou K., Wass S. Attention and social communication skills of very preterm infants after training attention control: Bayesian analyses of a feasibility study. PLoS One, 2022. Vol. 17, no. 9, article ID e0273767. 21 p. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0273767
4. Goodwin A., Salomone S., Bolton P. et al. Attention training for infants at familial risk of ADHD (INTERSTAARS): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials, 2016. Vol. 17, article ID 608. 12 p. DOI:10.1186/s13063-016-1727-0
5. Fabio R.A., Billeci L., Crifaci G., Troise E., Tortorella G., Pioggia G. Cognitive training modifies frequency EEG bands and neuropsychological measures in Rett syndrome. Research in developmental disabilities, 2016. Vol. 53—54, pp. 73—85. DOI:10.1016/j.ridd.2016.01.009
6. Fabio R.A., Semino M., Giannatiempo S., Caprì T., Iannizzotto G., Nucita A. Comparing Advanced with Basic Telerehabilitation Technologies for Patients with Rett Syndrome — A Pilot Study on Behavioral Parameters. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2022. Vol. 9, no. 1, article ID 507. 16 p. DOI:10.3390/ijerph19010507
7. Lee T.L., Yeung M.K., Sze S.L., Chan A.S. Computerized Eye-Tracking Training Improves the Saccadic Eye Movements of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Brain sciences, 2020. Vol. 10, no. 12, article ID 1016. 9 p. DOI:10.3390/brainsci10121016
8. Townend G.S., Marschik P.B., Smeets E., van de Berg R., van den Berg M., Curfs L.M.G. Eye Gaze Technology as a Form of Augmentative and Alternative Communication for Individuals with Rett Syndrome: Experiences of Families in The Netherlands. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 2016. Vol. 28, pp. 101—112. DOI:10.1007/s10882-015-9455-z
9. Fabio R.A., Caprì T., Nucita A., Iannizzotto G., Mohammadhasani N. Eye-gaze digital games improve motivational and attentional abilities in RETT syndrome. Journal of Special Education and Rehabilitation, 2018. Vol. 19, no. 3—4, pp. 105—126. DOI:10.19057/jser.2019.43
10. Lee T.L., Yeung M.K., Sze S.L., Chan A.S. Eye-Tracking Training Improves Inhibitory Control in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Brain Science, 2021. Vol. 11, no. 3, article ID 314. 12 p. DOI:10.3390/brainsci11030314
11. Chan A.S., Lee T.L., Sze S.L., Yang N.S., Han Y.M.Y. Eye-tracking training improves the learning and memory of children with learning difficulty. Scientific Reports, 2022. Vol.12, article ID 13974. 10 p. DOI:10.1038/s41598-022-18286-6
12. Powell G., Wass S.V., Erichsen J.T., Leekam S.R. First evidence of the feasibility of gaze-contingent attention training for school children with autism. Autism, 2016. Vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 927—937. DOI:10.1177/1362361315617880
13. Forssman L., Wass S.V. Training Basic Visual Attention Leads to Changes in Responsiveness to Social-Communicative Cues in 9-Month-Olds. Child Development, 2018. Vol. 89, no. 3, pp. e199—e213. DOI:10.1111/cdev.12812
14. Garcia-Zapirain B., de la Torre Díez I., López-Coronado M. Dual System for Enhancing Cognitive Abilities of Children with ADHD Using Leap Motion and eye-Tracking Technologies. Journal of Medical Systems, 2017. Vol. 41, article ID 111. 8 p. DOI:10.1007/s10916-017-0757-9
15. Carelli L., Solca F., Tagini S. et al. Gaze-Contingent Eye-Tracking Training in Brain Disorders: A Systematic Review. Brain Science, 2022. Vol. 12, no. 7, article ID 931. 11 p. DOI:10.3390/brainsci12070931
16. Goodwin A., Jones E.J.H., Salomone S. et al. INTERSTAARS: Attention training for infants with elevated likelihood of developing ADHD: A proof-of-concept randomised controlled trial. Translational Psychiatry, 2021. Vol. 11, article ID 644. 9 p. DOI:10.1038/s41398-021-01698-9
17. Fabio R.A., Giannatiempo S., Semino M., Caprì T. Longitudinal cognitive rehabilitation applied with eye-tracker for patients with Rett Syndrome. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 2021. Vol. 111, article ID 103891. 9 p. DOI:10.1016/j.ridd.2021.103891
18. Lundwall R.A. Visual reflexive attention as a useful measure of development. Frontiers in Psychology, 2023. Vol. 14, article ID 1206045. 13 p. DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1206045
19. Wass S.V., de Barbaro K., Clackson K., Leong V. New meanings of thin-skinned: The contrasting attentional profiles of typical 12-month-olds who show high, and low, stress reactivity. Developmental Psychology, 2018. Vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 816—828. DOI:10.1037/dev0000428
20. García-Baos A., D’Amelio T., Oliveira I., Collins P., Echevarria C., Zapata L.P., Liddle E., Supèr H. Novel Interactive Eye-Tracking Game for Training Attention in Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, 2019. Vol. 21, no. 4, article ID 19m02428. DOI:10.4088/PCC.19m02428
21. Peng P., Miller A.C. Does attention training work? A selective meta-analysis to explore the effects of attention training and moderators. Learning and Individual Difference, 2016. Vol. 45, pp. 77—87. DOI:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.11.012
22. Posner M.I., Rothbart M.K. Research on Attention Networks as a Model for the Integration of Psychological Science. Annual Review of Psychology, 2007. Vol. 58, pp. 1—23. DOI:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085516
23. Wang Q., Wall C.A., Barney E.C., Bradshaw J.L., Macari S.L., Chawarska K., Shic F. Promoting Social Attention in 3-Year-Olds with ASD through Gaze-Contingent Eye Tracking. Autism Research, 2020. Vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 61—73. DOI:10.1002/aur.2199
24. Dovigo L., Caprì T., Iannizzotto G., Nucita A., Semino M., Giannatiempo S., Zocca L., Fabio R.A. Social and Cognitive Interactions Through an Interactive School Service for RTT Patients at the COVID-19 Time. Frontiers in Psychology, 2021. Vol. 12, article ID 676238. 10 p. DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.676238
25. Perra O., Wass S., McNulty A., Sweet D., Papageorgiou K., Johnston M., Patterson A., Bilello D., Alderdice F. Training attention control of very preterm infants: protocol for a feasibility study of the Attention Control Training (ACT). Pilot and Feasibility Studies, 2020. Vol. 6, article ID 17. 11 p. DOI:10.1186/s40814-020-0556-9
26. Vessoyan , Steckle G., Easton B., Nichols M., Siu V.M., McDougall J. Using eye-tracking technology for communication in Rett syndrome: perceptions of impact. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 2018. Vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 230—241. DOI:10.1080/07434618.2018.1462848
27. Perra O., Wass S., McNulty A., Sweet D., Papageorgiou K., Johnston M., Bilello D., Patterson A., Alderdice F. Very preterm infants engage in an intervention to train their control of attention: results from the feasibility study of the Attention Control Training (ACT) randomised trial. Pilot and Feasibility Studies, 2021. Vol. 7, article ID 66. 23 p. DOI:10.1186/s40814-021-00809-z
28. Wass S., Porayska-Pomsta K., Johnson M.H. Training Attentional Control in Infancy. Current Biology, 2011. Vol. 21, no. 18, pp. 1543—1447. DOI:10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.004
29. Wass S.V., Cook C., Clackson K. Changes in behavior and salivary cortisol after targeted cognitive training in typical 12-month-old infants. Developmental psychology, 2017. Vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 815—825. DOI:10.1037/dev0000266
30. Elison J.T., Paterson S.J., Wolff J.J. et al. White Matter Microstructure and Atypical Visual Orienting in 7-Month-Olds at Risk for Autism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 2013. Vol. 170, no. 8, pp. 899—908. DOI:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12091150