Motivation for the Admission of Orphans of Employable Categories in the Context of Various Forms of Family Structure

The results of a study examining the motivations behind the admission of children without parental care (N=7,150 potential and actual substitute parents) from challenging categories—such as siblings, adolescents, children with disabilities, and those with high individual needs—into various forms of family arrangements (adoption, foster care, and guardianship) are presented. This research employs a resource-based approach, which views motivation as a resource for fulfilling personal and family needs. The findings indicate that the majority of informants are reluctant to accept children from these challenging categories, primarily due to associated difficulties (such as character traits, learning issues, and health problems) and fears (including concerns about heredity, developmental disorders, and doubts regarding their own competence). Adoptive parents tend to exhibit a higher level of sufficient resource motivation, while guardians and foster parents are often more focused on addressing family crises and financial challenges. The most motivated candidates are typically from intact families, where both spouses formalize their commitment to parenthood. Training in the Supportive Parenting Resource (SPR) program enhances parents' sufficient resource motivation while simultaneously reducing insufficient motivation, although it may increase levels of fears and concerns. After completing the program, candidates are more likely to transition to paid forms of guardianship.

Introduction

The late 1990s of the 20th century in Russia can be called the pivotal time in terms of the state's activities for protection of the rights and interests of children without parental care. The development of family forms of placement for orphans made it possible to remove more than 90% of children from institutional care. In 2023, 322,628 children were being raised in families and 31,654 children were being raised in organizations [Svedeniya po forme, 2024]. Types of compensated care, including a foster family, have become particularly attractive (the share of children in them was 30.7% in 2015 and 47.04% in 2023) [Svedeniya po forme, 2024]. The family's semi-professional status made it more open both to material support and to the establishment of special infrastructure like the foster parent school and family support services, which came to serve the entire family placement system over time. This has slowed down the rate of uncompensated care development (57.26% of placed children in 2015 and 45.66% in 2023). Adoption, which is an individual permanent (indefinite) form of placing children without parental care, remains a priority, but the demand for it is not sufficient (19.9% in 2015 and 19.5% in 2024) [Semeinyi kodeks Rossiiskoi, 2023]. For the child themselves, this form is the most stable, allowing them to grow up and start their independent life at their own pace, rather than after the placement ends. For children placed in families, the end of placement provokes a high levels of stress [Oslon, 2023]. However, the family system with an adopted child often does not allow specialized assistance, including financial, due to the adoption secrecy.

In recent years, a serious challenge has been the prevalence of hard-to-place children category in the Federal Orphan Data Bank: teenagers (about 80%), children with disabilities (30%), and siblings, who may not be separated (more than 50%). In 2016, the government set the task to activate family placement of this children category [Novosti: Ol'ga Golodets]. However, families are afraid to foster them [Oslon], which is also proved by the results of the study presented in this article.

All this poses a challenge for the scientific community to study the potential and actual substitute parents' motivation to foster a child of this category [Caron, 2022; Cooley, 2019].

All over the world, the motivation is regarded as the most important predictor of the family placement efficiency, allowing us to predict the success of substitute parenting, correct both the psychological readiness to foster a child and the child-parent relationships in the course of upbringing [Zhuikova, 2014; Institut priemnoi sem'i, 2008; Makhnach, 2018; Mukhamedrakhimov, 2023; Davi, 2021].

Russian and foreign literature presents various classifications of the motivation types [Oslon, 2021a; Palamarchuk, 2016; da Silva Sampaio, 2020; Davi, 2021; Frimpong-Manso, 2020; Howell-Moroney, 2014; Sorek, 2020]. As a rule, the basis is their focus: internal, which is oriented on support and acceptance of the child and related to the child's values, standards, and personal characteristics, and external, which is conditional upon the expected reward or meeting the parents' expectations; as well as the parent's focus on the child or themselves [Aslamazova, 2017; Boenkina, 2020; Makhnach, 2018; Oslon, 2010; Howell-Moroney, 2014; Sebba, 2012].

Motivation types adequate or inadequate to the tasks of foster care [Oslon, 2021a] as well as constructive and unconstructive motivation [Kalashnova, 2021] are distinguished.

A number of authors consider the impact of negative motivation to foster a child on the intra-family relationships that may lead to the family abandoning the child [Markina, 2019; Makhnach, 2018], and pay attention to the possibility of parental motivation transformation, depending on the growth and changes in both the parents and their children [Sorek, 2020].

A review of international research shows that for child-oriented parents altruism is the leading motivation type [Migliorini, 2018; Vecchiato, 2016]. They prove that enhanced altruistic motivation leads to acceptance of the child and improvement of the parent's health [Markina, 2019], ensures that the child is loved, has a safe place they would call home, and is not abused [Blythe, 2014]. Awareness, ethical and moral standards and principles have been mentioned as some of the key factors in admission of a child into the family [Palmer, 2023]. It is worth noting that financial motivation for fostering a child is most importance for Africa and Asia, but is not typical for countries like Australia and Canada [Melanie, 2012; Rochat, 2016; Rodger, 2006]. Western researchers assign a special role to religious motivation [Helder, 2020], which is not typical for Russian studies [Oslon, 2021]. In Russian studies, the leading types of motivation include "self-actualization as a parent" [Oslon, 2021; Shayakhmetov, 2023].

They show that foster parents with a focus on themselves want to have more children, to provide their child with siblings, and themselves with a companion [Kozlova, 2012; Migliorini, 2018; Mullings, 2010; Vecchiato, 2016]. It is also admitted that classifications of the types of motivation for fostering the hard-to-place children category are focused on children with disabilities [Aslamazova, 2017; Kolosova, 2018]. The most common motivation includes altruistic motives, "filling an empty nest", "doing a good thing", "to overcome childlessness" [Aslamazova, 2017], "striving to look worthy", "being not worse than others" [Kolosova, 2018]. Attempts have been made to link the motivation with the forms of family placement, associating guardianship with forced substitution of parents by relatives [Kozlova, 2012] and adoption with the mother's altruism [Markina, 2019]. However, the number of such studies and their participants is limited.

Thus, the motivation for admission of an orphan child into the family is considered worldwide as a predictor of the success of their integration into the family and further socialization. Both foreign and Russian studies have developed various classifications of the motivation types. At the same time, there are certain inconsistencies in the definition of the most resourceful motivation types: in foreign psychology, they are altruism, tendency towards prosocial behavior, and Russian authors mostly mention the parent's self-actualization. In Russia, despite the impressive success in addressing the orphanhood problem, there are hard-to- place categories of children who need family placement, but cause serious concerns among potential substitute parents as to their ability to raise them in their family. Russian studies most often focus on the specifics of motivation for admission of a child with disabilities into the family. There are limitations in the scientific publications available to the authors, due to the small sample size, insufficient disclosure of motivational resources for various forms of family placement, as well as the motivational potential of prospective and actual substitute parents in terms of bringing up hard-to-place children.

This article presents the materials of a study aimed at identifying the specifics of motivation for admission of hard-to-place orphans (siblings, children with disabilities, children with mental disorders, teenagers) in potential and functioning substitute parents, depending on the family placement form.

Objectives:

1. To analyze the availability of experience of upbringing, readiness to admit hard-to-place children into the family, as well as difficulties and fears of potential and actual substitute parents in the context of various placement forms;
2. to determine similarities and differences in the types of motivation for admission of hard-to-place children into the family among potential and actual substitute parents in various family placement forms, depending on the status of the family and participation in programs aimed at preparation of parents for placement of a child.

As a theoretical and methodological basis, the study described here used the resource-based approach, in which motivation is presented as a resource that determines a certain behavior of the subject [Il'yasov, 2013]; as everything that family members have to offer each other to help meet needs or help achieve their goals [Oslon, 2021a; Davi, 2021]. The authors consider the motivation for admission of a child into the family as a resource that allows family members to meet the most urgent life needs.

Scientific novelty of the discussed research consists in the identification and description of the specificity of motivational profiles of prospective and actual substitute parents in terms of admission of a hard-to-place child into a family, depending on their participation in programs of preparation for fostering a child, their family structure and marital status, differentiation of difficulties in raising orphans in a family of substitute parents in various forms of family placement. Special attention is paid to adoption.

Organization of the study, methods and psychodiagnostic techniques used

To ensure a wider coverage of respondents, data was collected through a web-based survey service in an anonymous and voluntary manner. Data collection was supported by the regional child protection agencies and foster parent school and family support specialists. The procedure took 60 to 90 minutes and complied with the ethical standards established by the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki. The respondents were informed of the aims and objectives of the study and provided their consent to participate.

Sampling

The study involved 7,150 potential and actual substitute parents of the main family placement forms from 57 regions of the Russian Federation: prospective guardians/foster parents (N=684); prospective adoptive parents (N=560); guardians/patrons (N=2,991); foster parents (N=2,642); adoptive parents (N=273) aged 18 to 65 years, those who has grown up and is ready to become their siblings' guardian (the average age of 46.45+9.98 years old). The overwhelming majority were women (N=6,623), as they have the highest motivation to admit a child into their family [Main, 2017]. Most of the respondents (56.1%) lived in villages, while the rest (43.9%) lived in urban areas. 59.7% of adoptive parents, 37.7% of foster parents, and 28.9% of guardians had higher education. Almost every 3rd parent raised their children in a single-parent family. The majority of the respondents (68.8%) had their natural children. In adoptive families, most often both the spouses are officially parents (adoptive parents – 58.6%; foster parents – 42.2%; guardians/patrons – 23.3%). Most parents, regardless of the family placement form, were raising two foster/adopted children (guardians – 83.10%; foster parents – 54.4%; adoptive parents – 77.7%). The vast majority of foster parents and adoptive parents were undergoing or had completed training in a foster parent school (foster parents – 89.4%; adoptive parents – 87.5%). As for guardians, only 25.7% of them had such training.

Methods

The following methods were used in statistical data processing: Student's t-test, one-factor analysis of variance, factor analysis (principal component method, Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization), Pearson's Chi-square, and Cohen's d criterion.

Methods

A specially designed questionnaire (147 questions) was used for the study. Only responses related to the motivation for admission were analyzed in this article.

The specifics of motivation for admission of children into a family for foster care were identified using the methodology described by V.N. Oslon in the Motivation for Admission of an Orphan Child into a Substitute Family (V.N. Oslon) [Oslon, 2021a] in order to distinguish the following types: resolving a family crisis, replacing a child after its loss, including the trauma of infertility, altruism, "filling an empty nest" (children have grown up and left home, there is no child in the family), self-actualization as a parent (any child, regardless of health condition, behavior, etc., is a value), satisfaction of existential needs, satisfaction of financial needs, solving demographic problems (desire to have a large family, a child of a certain sex), religious motivation (duty to God).

Results

The analysis of answers made it possible to identify presence of parenting experience, willingness to admit hard-to-place children into the family, and the respondents' fears related to bringing up such children, depending on the respondent's status (prospective or actual substitute parent), the family placement form, and the training program participation.

Guardians and foster parents were more likely to report having experience in parenting teenagers. Foster parents indicated that they had experience in raising siblings and children with disabilities (Table 1).

Table 1. Availability of experience in bringing up hard-to-place children (%)

Despite their experience, the majority of the respondents are not ready to admit hard-to-place children into their families (52.5%). At the same time, the highest proportion is among prospective and actual adoptive parents (Table 2).

Table 2. Willingness to admit hard-to-place children into the family (%)

The lack of willingness to admit hard-to-place children into the family is caused by the difficulties the parents used to face and the fears that arise from the decision to foster a child.

The following answers were received to the question "What difficulties did you personally encounter in the course of bringing up a child?" (see Table 3).

Table 3. Differences in answers to the question "What difficulties did you personally encounter in the course of bringing up a child?" (%)

The greatest difficulties were recorded by foster parents. They mentioned psychological problems related to the child's character; learning problems; mental retardation; tendency towards deviant behavior; ill-manneredness and lack of self-care skills. Adoptive parents were most often worried about the child's weak immune system. They also had difficulty because of the child's character traits and mental retardation. The guardians bringing up children being their relatives mainly complained about the child's character and learning problems. The potential parents were significantly less likely to report any difficulties. Overall, more than one-third of the respondents were concerned about psychological problems related to the child's character and learning problems.

Prospective guardians and adoptive parents were more likely to indicate fears related to the child's bad heredity: hereditary diseases (33% and 46.4%, respectively); hereditary tendency towards deviant behavior (36.1% and 37.1%, respectively); and fears of mental disorders in the child (33% and 35.9%, respectively). It is worth-admitting that adoptive parents also have concerns of the child's hereditary tendency towards deviant behavior (32.8%). Doubt in their own competence in child rearing issues was most often specified by guardians (20.6%) and prospective guardians (20.5%) (Table 4).

 Table 4. Differences in answers to the question "What doubts, concerns, fears did or do you have in connection with the decision to adopt a child, or become a guardian or a foster parent?" (%)

Participation in training programs increases the proportion of the respondents, regardless to the placement form, who indicated presence of fears and concerns. Those who completed their training (15.6%) and began to raise children have a declining proportion. Parents who were not trained (9.3%) had the lowest proportion (c2=49.8, p<0.01). In the course of raising a child, the level of concerns in the respondents having completed their foster parent school training decreases.

Participation in training has an impact on the choice of the family placement form (see the figure). There is almost a threefold decrease in the number of individuals willing to adopt a child. Most of them "migrate" to the compensated forms of care. A significant proportion of the respondents who have not been trained are at a loss and do not understand which form to choose. After the training course, every fifth respondent is still unable to answer this question for themselves. Patronage, which refers to care of teenagers of 14+ years old, is unpopular with parents and the demand for it decreases after completion of the course

Fig. Choice of the family placement form, depending on training completion 

When analyzing the results of the methodology described in Motivation for Admission of an Orphan Child into a Substitute Family [Oslon, 2021a], two motivational profiles were identified, using factor analysis (principal component method, Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization, percentage of dispersion 68.76), to be given the following conditional names:

- sufficiently resourceful (36.19% of the variance), reflecting the system of deep motives for admission of a child into the family (self-actualization as a parent, altruism, satisfaction of existential needs, "filling an empty nest");

- insufficiently resourceful (32.56% of the variance), including a system of external motives (overcoming a crisis, solving demographic problems, religious motivation, satisfaction of financial needs, child substitution) (tab. 5).

Table 5. Results of factor analysis (principal component method, Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization)

The correlation of profiles and types of motivation for admission of children into the family (Table 6) showed that, regardless of the informant's status, the structure is dominated by sufficiently resourceful motivation. The most preferred ("self-actualization as a parent") and the most rejected ("overcoming a crisis") types of motivation in all respondents were distinguished. They can be categorized as normative and socially approved choices. 

Table 6. Differences in the types of motivation to admit children of the difficult-to-place category into the family, depending on the respondent's status (average values and results of one-factor analysis of variance)

Motivation of self-actualization as a parent is higher in foster parents and adoptive parents (Table 6). Prospective adoptive parents who are oriented towards lifetime adoption have a higher need for self-actualization compared to other prospective parents. Foster parents are most often driven by altruistic motivation and "filling the empty nest" motivation. For adoptive parents, adopting a child is more often associated with the need to fulfill existential needs. They also have the lowest values for the "child substitute" type. Guardians are motivated to overcome a family crisis more often than others, as they are often forced to admit a child due to a tragedy in the extended family. However, the effect sizes are small (h2≤0.04).

In pairwise comparisons of intake motivation types, the largest effect sizes were found among adoptive parents and foster parents on the motivation to overcome a family crisis (Cohen's d of 0.48), and among adoptive parents and foster parents on meeting financial needs (Cohen's d of 0.45).

Prospective substitute parents, regardless of the family placement form, have lower average values of any type of motivation compared to the actual parents. In pairwise comparisons, the largest effect was found for prospective substitute parents and guardians on overcoming a crisis (Cohen's d, 0.49) and child substitution (Cohen's d, 0.44); and for prospective and actual adoptive parents on "filling an empty nest" (Cohen's d, 0.44).

The motivation types also depend on the family structure (two-parent/incomplete) and on formalization of substitute parenthood by the spouse (Table 7). In two-parent families, where both the spouses take responsibility for raising the child, the values of all the types of sufficiently resourceful motivation are slightly higher. For single parents, with the absolute majority of mothers, the values of this profile are more pronounced compared to two-parent families where only one of the spouses has formalized substitute parenthood. Single mothers are more likely to be focused on satisfying altruistic, existential needs and "filling an empty nest". It is worth mentioning that in complete families with two substitute parents and incomplete families the values of insufficiently resourceful motivation types converge. The exception is the need to overcome a family and personal crisis, which is higher in single parents. 

Table 7. Differences in types of motivation to admit a child into a family depending on family structure and spouse status (mean values and results of one-factor analysis of variance)

The preference of the motivation types is also associated with participation in the foster parent school training programs (Table 8). 

Table 8. Differences in the types of motivation to admit a child into the family, depending on the respondent's participation in the foster parent school programs, average values and comparison results (one-factor analysis of variance)

Parents who completed the training program, regardless of the family placement form, have statistically significantly higher types of motivation of the 1st profile and statistically significantly lower types of the 2nd profile compared to those who were not trained (Table 8), which indicates the effectiveness of the foster parent school specialists' work to shape the adequate motivation, although the effects are very small. Parents who have not been trained are more likely to record financial needs and child substitution as their motivation and refer to the duty to God.

Discussion of results

The motivation to admit a child into the family can be either sufficiently or insufficiently resourceful. The identified two motivational profiles allowed us to systematize and classify the types of motivation from the position of their resourcefulness to raise a foster child. The profile of sufficiently resourceful motivation reflected the system of deep motives of child reception: self-actualization as a parent; altruism; satisfaction of existential needs; "filling an empty nest". The profile of insufficiently resourceful motivation included: overcoming a family and personal crisis; resolving demographic problems; religious motivation; satisfaction of financial needs; and child substitution.

In general, when admitting a child, informants are guided to a greater extent by sufficiently resourceful motivation. Foster parents and adoptive parents have a higher rate than guardians. Such type of motivation as self-actualization as a parent especially stands out. The results of the study correlate with the results of the leading Russian studies [Aslamazova, 2017; Boenkina, 2020; Zhuikova, 2014; Kalashnova, 2021; Kozlova, 2012; Kolosova, 2018; Makhnach, 2018].

In Russia, for foster families, fostering orphans has almost become a profession and is supported financially. Such motivation can be also considered as a need for professional self-actualization. Adoptive parents are more likely to satisfy the need for parenthood. Prospective adoptive parents have a higher level of this need compared to other prospective parents. Prospective and actual adoptive parents' motives are more focused on satisfying existential needs, while foster parents' motives are more focused on altruism and "filling an empty nest". Guardians whose admissions are more often associated with involuntary kinship care have the lowest values for profile type 1 and the highest values for profile type 2. This explains to some extent the frequent refusal of guardians to raise children when they grow up.

The resourcefulness of the motivation types depends on whether both the spouses are going to acquire the substitute parent status. In the course of raising a child a greater awareness of one's needs related to reception comes: actual substitute parents, regardless of the placement form, have higher values of any motivation type compared to prospective substitute parents.

The majority of the respondents, regardless of the placement form and their status, are not ready to admit hard-to place children, although they have experience of bringing up such children. Participation in the training programs, on the one hand, increases the values of sufficiently resourceful motivation and reduces those of insufficiently resourceful motivation, on the other hand, increases the parents' fears and concerns and results in refusal to admit a child into the family by most prospective substitute parents. The training often results in a "migration" of those wishing to adopt a child into compensated forms of family placement. This suggests a certain ambivalence in the effect of training on the motivation.

Conclusion

The materials of our study presented here show that, regardless of the family placement form and the status of the respondent, the motivation for admission of a child into the family is resourceful. The obtained results clarify and expand the ideas of the specifics of motivation to admit hard-to-place children in representatives of various family placement forms. Parents' unwillingness to admit children of this category into a family, ambivalence of the impact of training programs on potential parents, especially adoptive parents, require revision of their content and focus.

Conclusions:

1. Foster parents and guardians are most experienced in raising hard-to-place children. Foster parents are characterized by having experience in raising almost all the categories of such children. The majority of the respondents are not ready to admit hard-to-place children into their families. This is especially true for adoptive parents. The reasons are psychological problems determined by the specifics of the child's character, learning difficulties, poor health and fears related to bad heredity, as well as concerns about their own competence as a parent and the programs' focus on the development of compensated placement forms.
2. All the respondents are characterized by the sufficiently resourceful motivation (self-actualization as a parent, altruism, satisfaction of existential needs, "filling an empty nest"). However, against the background of other groups, guardians and foster parents are more often guided by such motives as overcoming a family crisis, child substitution and satisfaction of financial needs. The motivation to admit a child into the family depends on the family structure. The highest motivation is shown by a two-parent family in which both the spouses formalize their parenthood.

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